Instead of calming pain long term, opioids can remodel pain-processing circuits in the brain and spinal cord, making normal sensations feel more painful
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Ketamine also downregulates brain-derived neurotrophic factor, particularly in the hippocampus, exacerbating deficits in synaptic plasticity and cognitive functions
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LipRSV exerted limited and region-dependent redox effects, reducing ROS levels only in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and posterior cortex, while failing to improve behavioral outcomes and being associated with unfavorable neurochemical alterations, including reduced BDNF and NGF levels